- Judul : Quantum Mechanics (A Modern Development)
- Penulis : Leslie E. Ballentine
- Silahkan Download buku di atas disini
Senin, 28 Juni 2010
Buku Elektronik Mekanika Quantum
Selasa, 08 Juni 2010
Tetrameter
One chemical called Tetrameter examination, ie examination of the number of substances which are based on measuring the volume of the reaction solution needed to react stoichiometrically with substances that have been determined. Tetrameter or volumetric analysis is one method of checking a large number of chemical usage. This is due to several reasons. On the one hand, this way is profitable because its implementation is easy and fast, precision and accuracy is high enough. On the other hand, how does this benefit because it can be used to determine levels of various substances to which have different properties. Basically this means Tetrameter consists of measuring the volume of the reaction solution needed to react stoichiometrically with the substance to be determined. Reagent solution was usually known concentration with certainty, and called pen titer or standard solution. While the process of adding pen titer into solution substances that will be determined is called titration. In the process section by section pen titer added to a solution of substances to be determined with the aid of a tool called the Biuret so as to achieve equivalence point.
Equivalence point is the point at the specified reagents and substances react stoichiometrically perfect. Titration should be discontinued on or near the point of this equivalence. The total volume of unused pen titer to reach the point of equality is called the volume pen titer equality. By knowing the volume of equality, pen titer concentration and stoichiometric factor, then the number of prescribed substances can be calculated easily. Around the point of equality, as a result of interaction between substances that are determined by pen titer, system properties change sharply, the properties that changed it certainly can be a fiber optic, chemical, or electrochemical properties. Changes in these properties can be used to specify the location of the equivalence point.
Equivalence point is the point at the specified reagents and substances react stoichiometrically perfect. Titration should be discontinued on or near the point of this equivalence. The total volume of unused pen titer to reach the point of equality is called the volume pen titer equality. By knowing the volume of equality, pen titer concentration and stoichiometric factor, then the number of prescribed substances can be calculated easily. Around the point of equality, as a result of interaction between substances that are determined by pen titer, system properties change sharply, the properties that changed it certainly can be a fiber optic, chemical, or electrochemical properties. Changes in these properties can be used to specify the location of the equivalence point.
Very often analyzed substantially with the addition of solution of known concentration and the reaction took place quantitatively at substantially this analysis. If possible mix volume added into the solution reacts with all the analysis substance sufficient in the sample, and then the sample concentration can be calculated. Analysis of this kind, where the critical mixture of volume is needed when analyzing, classified as volumetric analysis. The process by which solutions of known concentration is added to the solution of known concentration will be referred to as a titration process. Knowledge of the solution is very important because the greater the chemical and biological reactions occur in the form of liquids, especially in the form of a solution with solvent water. Solution can be defined by a homogeny system consisting of two or more components. The terms solvent and solute could actually exchanged, but the term usually used for liquid solvent, if the solution consists of the solids in the liquid or gas. This term for other types of solutions commonly used to express the substance contained in a larger quantity. Components are much less common is called the solute.
All gases can be mixed with each other. Therefore, all the gas mixture is a solution. Liquids in general can dissolve a variety of other liquids solids and gases can form a solution. When the solvent water, the solution formed is known as a solvent solution with water. Condensation is formed when the gases, liquids or other solids dissolved in solution. Solid solution is not very important in biological systems, but it is very important in metallurgy.
Sabtu, 05 Juni 2010
Partial molal volume
Knowledge of the solution is very important, because the greater the chemical and biological reactions that occur in the form of liquids, especially in the form of a solution with solvent water. Solution can be defined as a homogeneous system which consists of two components or more substances. The term of solvents and solutes can actually exchanged, but the term usually used for liquid solvent, when the solution consists of solids or gases in liquids. This term for other types of solutions commonly used to express the substance contained in a larger quantity. Components are much less common is called the solute. All of the gas can be mixed with each other. Therefore, all the gas mixture is a solution. Liquids in general can dissolve a variety of solids, other liquids, and gases can form a solution. When the solvent water, the solution formed is known as a solvent solution with water. Solid solution is formed when gases, liquids or other solids dissolved in solution. Solid solution is not very important in biological systems, but it is very important in metallurgy.
Not all systems have a simple properties like the binary system. Some systems during the fractional distillation can only produce a pure component alone. The rest was a mixture that has a fixed boiling point. One example of a mixture that produces the minimum boiling point of ethanol-water system. In such a system, not pure alcohol may be produced by fractional distillation. When several substances are mixed together, the total volume of the mixture is generally different from the total volume of individual components. Or contraction of the reaction force between molecules intermolecular intermolecular emerged from a mixture of styles between the molecules, and very real when the two substances is the solution. Rate of change of the volume described quantitatively in the partial molal volume of formula from.
In the experiment we measure the partial molal volume of ethanol in water at different concentrations. Partial molal volume is very effective for calculating the volume of one mole of ethanol in concentrated solution, which differs from the volume of one mole of pure ethanol. A very common method is to calculate the precise mass of the known volume of a solution computed on a calibrated glass vessel called piknometer. Piknometer quite difficult to use, even then, and in this experiment, we can calculate the density of a known solution with sinker - quartz stone weights tied to the arms of chemical equilibrium, which is immersed in solution (Matthews, P. 1985) Solvents used in chemical examination of not only water, but can also nirair solvent (not water). The role of solvent-solvent will be described in detail in this chapter. This description begins with an explanation of the solvent properties of water and solvent properties nirair, followed by a discussion of the interplay of solvent-solvent and mutual influence between ions in the solvent. At the end of this chapter discussed the role of solution ionic strength in influencing chemical equilibrium, which in turn will affect the chemical examination.
Not all systems have a simple properties like the binary system. Some systems during the fractional distillation can only produce a pure component alone. The rest was a mixture that has a fixed boiling point. One example of a mixture that produces the minimum boiling point of ethanol-water system. In such a system, not pure alcohol may be produced by fractional distillation. When several substances are mixed together, the total volume of the mixture is generally different from the total volume of individual components. Or contraction of the reaction force between molecules intermolecular intermolecular emerged from a mixture of styles between the molecules, and very real when the two substances is the solution. Rate of change of the volume described quantitatively in the partial molal volume of formula from.
In the experiment we measure the partial molal volume of ethanol in water at different concentrations. Partial molal volume is very effective for calculating the volume of one mole of ethanol in concentrated solution, which differs from the volume of one mole of pure ethanol. A very common method is to calculate the precise mass of the known volume of a solution computed on a calibrated glass vessel called piknometer. Piknometer quite difficult to use, even then, and in this experiment, we can calculate the density of a known solution with sinker - quartz stone weights tied to the arms of chemical equilibrium, which is immersed in solution (Matthews, P. 1985) Solvents used in chemical examination of not only water, but can also nirair solvent (not water). The role of solvent-solvent will be described in detail in this chapter. This description begins with an explanation of the solvent properties of water and solvent properties nirair, followed by a discussion of the interplay of solvent-solvent and mutual influence between ions in the solvent. At the end of this chapter discussed the role of solution ionic strength in influencing chemical equilibrium, which in turn will affect the chemical examination.
Jumat, 04 Juni 2010
Blackbody radiation
Sun rays coming to Earth, carrying thermal energy (heat) through electromagnetic waves. Heat transfer is called radiation, which can take place in a vacuum. Radiation emitted by an object as a result of its temperature is called heat radiation. Obviously, every object is continuously emitting heat radiation in the form of electromagnetic waves. In fact, a cube of ice that we often see in everyday life also emit heat radiation energy, although with a very small fraction of this heat radiation in the visible light region.
In the laboratory, newly visible objects radiate heat if the temperature exceeds 1000 K. At this temperature the object started glowing red just like when we turn on an electric stove coil and color indicates the color red. When the temperature rose to 2000 K, the object will be fluorescent yellow or whitish like the fluorescent iron on the light bulb. So also the higher the temperature of the object will be more different colors are emitted. However, in the physical sciences, there is a hot body that emits thermal spectra with the same characters / universal. Black body (black body) is the name of the object. In physics itself, a black body is an object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation that falls to the black body. No radiation can exit or reflected by the black body.
In the experiment, the object that most closely approximates a black body radiation is the radiation from a small hole in a cavity. Any light entering the hole close and this will be reflected and the energy absorbed by the walls of the cavity many times, regardless of wall material and the wavelength of incoming radiation (long wavelength smaller than the diameter entrance hole). This hole is the approach of a black body. Although his name black object, he should not really black because he also can transmit energy. The number and types of electromagnetic radiation emitted depends on the black body temperature. Black body with a temperature below 700 K almost all the energy emitted in the form of infrared waves, very little in the visible wavelengths. The higher the temperature, the more energy is emitted in the visible wavelength starts red, yellow, orange and white.
The higher the temperature when the cavity is heated, the more visible light can be seen. The observed waves could not be explained by classical electromagnetic theory and statistical mechanics. This theory predicts a high intensity at low wavelengths (ie high frequency). Theoretic Problem was solved by the Max Planck stated that electromagnetic radiation propagating in empty space is not continuous but propagate in the form of packages or often called a photon. While the term black body itself was first introduced by Gustav Robert Kirchoff in the year 1862 and the radiation that comes out / is emitted by a black body that is called blackbody radiation.
In the laboratory, newly visible objects radiate heat if the temperature exceeds 1000 K. At this temperature the object started glowing red just like when we turn on an electric stove coil and color indicates the color red. When the temperature rose to 2000 K, the object will be fluorescent yellow or whitish like the fluorescent iron on the light bulb. So also the higher the temperature of the object will be more different colors are emitted. However, in the physical sciences, there is a hot body that emits thermal spectra with the same characters / universal. Black body (black body) is the name of the object. In physics itself, a black body is an object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation that falls to the black body. No radiation can exit or reflected by the black body.
In the experiment, the object that most closely approximates a black body radiation is the radiation from a small hole in a cavity. Any light entering the hole close and this will be reflected and the energy absorbed by the walls of the cavity many times, regardless of wall material and the wavelength of incoming radiation (long wavelength smaller than the diameter entrance hole). This hole is the approach of a black body. Although his name black object, he should not really black because he also can transmit energy. The number and types of electromagnetic radiation emitted depends on the black body temperature. Black body with a temperature below 700 K almost all the energy emitted in the form of infrared waves, very little in the visible wavelengths. The higher the temperature, the more energy is emitted in the visible wavelength starts red, yellow, orange and white.
The higher the temperature when the cavity is heated, the more visible light can be seen. The observed waves could not be explained by classical electromagnetic theory and statistical mechanics. This theory predicts a high intensity at low wavelengths (ie high frequency). Theoretic Problem was solved by the Max Planck stated that electromagnetic radiation propagating in empty space is not continuous but propagate in the form of packages or often called a photon. While the term black body itself was first introduced by Gustav Robert Kirchoff in the year 1862 and the radiation that comes out / is emitted by a black body that is called blackbody radiation.
Perubahan Energi
Sebuah benda yang memiliki gerak dan berada pada ketinggian tertentu memiliki sebuah Energi. Jika ditinjau dari segi gerak benda tersebut maka benda tersebut memilki Energi Kinetik sedangkan benda yang berada dalam suatu ketinggian maka benda tersebut memilki Energi berupa Energi Potensial yang dapat ditinjau dari massa, ketinggian benda tersebut.
Energi suatu benda atau sistem adalah kemampuan benda atau sistem itu melakukan kerja. Tiap perubahan baik kimia maupun fisika, melibatkan perubahan energi. Energi mempunyai berbagai bentuk, energi panas atau kalor, energi listrik, energi radiasi, energi kimia dan energi nuklir merupakan sebagian kecil dari energi yang ada.
Dari penjelasan itu semua, semua energi tersebut datang bukan karena dibuat oleh sesorang atau akibat perlakuan seseorang. Maka, ada sebuah Hukum Kekekalan Energi, yakni “Energi tidak dapat diciptakan dan tidak dapat dimusnahkan, hanya dapat di ubah ke bentuk energi yang lain”. Berikut penjelasan dari beberapa energi yang sering dikenal.
Energi Listrik
Energi Listrik adalah macam energi yang dikaitkan dengan lewat sebuah atau suatu arus listrik. Energi listrik diubah menjadi energi cahaya dalam sebuah lampu listrik, menjadi energi panas dalam suatu kompor listrik menjadi energi mekanika dalam sebuah starter sebuah mobil.
Energi Radiasi (Radiant Energy)
Energi Radiasi merupakan energi yang dikaitkan dengan cahaya biasa, sinar-X, gelombang radio dan sinar infra-merah. Energi radiasi juga disebut radiasi elektromagnetik. Semua radiasi semacam ini merambat dalam ruang dengan kecepatan cahaya sebesar 3×〖10〗^8 m⁄s.
Energi Kimia
Energi Kimia adalah energi yang dimiliki suatu zat karena keadaan kimia suatu bahan. Energi kimia diubah menjadi energi semacam lain bila materi mengalami perubahan denang macam yang sesuai. Contoh, batubara dan bensin yang terbakar, atau bila makanan yang kita makan terbakar dalam sel-sel kita. Suatu energi kimia diubah menjadi energi panas. Kebalikannya semua macam energi dapat diubah menjadi energi kimia oleh suatu perubahan yang sesuai macam. Energi radiasi dari matahari diubah menjadi energi kimia dalam suatu pohon jagung yang sedang tumbuh; energi kimia itu dikaitkan dengan zat-zat yang membentuk tongkol. Energi kimia merupakan sumber utama energi untuk pabrik, perumahan dan transportasi.
Energi Nuklir
Energi Nuklir atau energi atom sering dikaitkan dengan cara-cara atom itu disusun. Metoda-metoda untuk mengubah energi semacam ini menjadi energi panas, cahaya dan bentuk lain yang telah dikembangkan sejak tahun 1941. Sebenarnya semua bentuk energi dapat dikelompokkan dalam dua kelas umum: energi potensial dan energi kinetik. Hal ini merupakan komponen dasar dari energi kinetik.
Energi Kinetik
Energi Kinetik adalah sebuah energi dari suatu benda karena gerakan karena benda tersebut. Pada saat air mengalir lewat turbin, per arloji perlahan-lahan mengendor, atau bensin terbakar dalam mesin mobil, energi potensial diubah menjadi energi kinetic. Suatu mobil yang bergerak, bola yang sedang melambung, pesawat yang sedang terbang dan semua memiliki energi kinetik.
Energi suatu benda atau sistem adalah kemampuan benda atau sistem itu melakukan kerja. Tiap perubahan baik kimia maupun fisika, melibatkan perubahan energi. Energi mempunyai berbagai bentuk, energi panas atau kalor, energi listrik, energi radiasi, energi kimia dan energi nuklir merupakan sebagian kecil dari energi yang ada.
Dari penjelasan itu semua, semua energi tersebut datang bukan karena dibuat oleh sesorang atau akibat perlakuan seseorang. Maka, ada sebuah Hukum Kekekalan Energi, yakni “Energi tidak dapat diciptakan dan tidak dapat dimusnahkan, hanya dapat di ubah ke bentuk energi yang lain”. Berikut penjelasan dari beberapa energi yang sering dikenal.
Energi Listrik
Energi Listrik adalah macam energi yang dikaitkan dengan lewat sebuah atau suatu arus listrik. Energi listrik diubah menjadi energi cahaya dalam sebuah lampu listrik, menjadi energi panas dalam suatu kompor listrik menjadi energi mekanika dalam sebuah starter sebuah mobil.
Energi Radiasi (Radiant Energy)
Energi Radiasi merupakan energi yang dikaitkan dengan cahaya biasa, sinar-X, gelombang radio dan sinar infra-merah. Energi radiasi juga disebut radiasi elektromagnetik. Semua radiasi semacam ini merambat dalam ruang dengan kecepatan cahaya sebesar 3×〖10〗^8 m⁄s.
Energi Kimia
Energi Kimia adalah energi yang dimiliki suatu zat karena keadaan kimia suatu bahan. Energi kimia diubah menjadi energi semacam lain bila materi mengalami perubahan denang macam yang sesuai. Contoh, batubara dan bensin yang terbakar, atau bila makanan yang kita makan terbakar dalam sel-sel kita. Suatu energi kimia diubah menjadi energi panas. Kebalikannya semua macam energi dapat diubah menjadi energi kimia oleh suatu perubahan yang sesuai macam. Energi radiasi dari matahari diubah menjadi energi kimia dalam suatu pohon jagung yang sedang tumbuh; energi kimia itu dikaitkan dengan zat-zat yang membentuk tongkol. Energi kimia merupakan sumber utama energi untuk pabrik, perumahan dan transportasi.
Energi Nuklir
Energi Nuklir atau energi atom sering dikaitkan dengan cara-cara atom itu disusun. Metoda-metoda untuk mengubah energi semacam ini menjadi energi panas, cahaya dan bentuk lain yang telah dikembangkan sejak tahun 1941. Sebenarnya semua bentuk energi dapat dikelompokkan dalam dua kelas umum: energi potensial dan energi kinetik. Hal ini merupakan komponen dasar dari energi kinetik.
Energi Kinetik
Energi Kinetik adalah sebuah energi dari suatu benda karena gerakan karena benda tersebut. Pada saat air mengalir lewat turbin, per arloji perlahan-lahan mengendor, atau bensin terbakar dalam mesin mobil, energi potensial diubah menjadi energi kinetic. Suatu mobil yang bergerak, bola yang sedang melambung, pesawat yang sedang terbang dan semua memiliki energi kinetik.
Kamis, 03 Juni 2010
Transformer
In the inductance, as we all know that a changing current produces a magnetic flux induces a voltage change into a coil. In this case the influence of a magnetic flux is changing and is owned by two or more different coils. Coil-coil adjacent took part called a flux along with the coupling together (mutually coupled). In circuits that have a trailer together, a stream that changes in one roll of electrical current in the coil produces voltage other scrolls in a trailer with it. Voltage electrical current is characterized by a mutual inductance (mutual inductance) contained between the coil-coil adjacent to each other. Inductance which together were not we think of as an element in a basic circuit because as we find out earlier, is always possible that these existing inductance representing the influence of mutual inductance, in a series with an equivalent circuit containing self inductance of the voltage sources and existing flows. A coil-coil system is arranged in connection with which rolled on a core called a transformer. Transformers are available in various types and sizes. In a radio receiver, television, and stereo equipment are often used to connect the various levels of reinforcement in the system. Transformer is used to raise or lower the voltage and to adjust the level of impedance in a power system and electronics. In a linear transformation, ie a transformer which consists of a coil-coil are linear, self inductance and mutual inductance is the combined properties of these linear transformations. Furthermore, we can find in a transformer has a store of energy and the properties associated with the impedance. Especially in the area of existing frequencies in the linear transformation, the frequency is very important because in every application of the transformer has an alternating current which is in a state fixed. Taken from the book with the title of Authorship Budiono Mismail Circuit. Published by Institute of Brawijaya University Publishing in August 29, 1981 Second Edition Volume One.
Ions Concept
The concept of the ion is a continuation of the continuous substances by the effects of Debye falkennegan wylen and alex, who lives on the circumstances. E = 10 ^ 5 v / cm. In this accretion is the result of the conductivity was observed (effect of Warren). In this accretion conductivity results from the fact that limited time (time off) is a form of pressure. Something about the atmosphere to form ions. In fact high, very fast exchange with the resulting loss at atmospheric pressure. Atmosphere did not have time to form and also can not slow down the ions. The result of this asymmetry is not visible and the conductivity are increase. For the same reason the addition of conductivity at high frequencies around 3 x 10 ^ 6 cms (dybye effects) / falkennegan. The transition ions on the instructions that it should have a very difficult motion at atmospheric pressure that can not be measured and will follow the movements of atoms are very difficult at atmospheric pressure and an increase conciliates. At high frequencies of both could be asymmetrical electropothic no results.
Molar conductivity of electrolyte, does not depend on the concentration of K appropriate if compared with the concentration of electrolytes. However, in practice, the molar conductivity berparsial against concentration. One reason is the number of ions in solution may not contain or proportional to the concentration of electrolytes. For example, the concentration of ions in weak acid solution depends on the acid concentration is complicated, and alloys that make up the concentration of the acid. Do not make double the existing number of ions. Both because the ions interact more strongly. Then the conductivity can not be proportional to the number of ions available. Measurement of the concentration dependence of molar conductivity showed the existence of two classes of electrolytes. General properties of the molar conductivity of electrolyte strength is only slightly decreases with increasing concentration. General properties of a weak electrolyte solution is a tool of the normal conductivity when the concentration approached or declined sharply to low values when the concentration increases. This classification depends on the solute and solvent used, for example lithium chloride which is a strong electrolyte in water. Strong electrolyte is a substance that perfect ionized in solution and includes ions.
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